Nursing Board Examinations Scam: Impact to Practice

The American Dream is in the hands of all nurses or so the globe as the U.S. is now facing a chronic treat dearth with a projected RN shortage of to a greater extent or less 800,000 in year 2020 (Buerhaus et al., 2000). The shortage of nurses that the U.S. healthc atomic number 18 industry need to fill up hits hundreds of thousands as the shortage continues despite rising requital of nurses.The health c atomic number 18 industry has bemoaned the treat shortage for more than a decade, and that more allow be needed for surplus patients as the featherbed Boom generation ages. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projected in 2005 that more than 3.1 million registered nurse jobs would be available by 2014, which would add an additional 700,000 new jobs for nurses (Moore, 2007).The United argonas has ramped up its importation of foreign-trained nurses mainly rised from Africa (mainly Nigeria and South Africa), India, Canada and the Filipinos (Vujicic, 2004). U.S. hospitals a nd health care agencies choose the Philippines because the province is a former American dep destroyence with school curriculum based on the American education carcass, classes are taught in English and nurses earn a four-year bachelors degree, sometimes more than what American nurses obtain.Thus, the learning curve for Philippine-trained nurses in the United States is minimal (Jenkins, 2003). The Filipino nurses get to morals is the primary reason why they comprise 83 pct of foreign nurses in America and are the most preferred by hospitals, doctors clinics and care homes according to U.S. National Council of State come ons of treat (NCSBN) (Bondoc, 2007). The Philippine Nurses companionship of America (PNAA) reported that at that place are around 90,000 Filipino nurses in the United States. Every year 12,000 to 14,000 Filipino nurses migrate to the U.S. (OPS, 2007).Nurses licensing trials is offered abroad to set ashore more foreign-born nurses to the U.S. and help allev iate the acute treat shortage that is crippling American health care. Most of the foreigners taking the mandatory U.S. licensing care for examen came from the Philippines, India, Canada, Nigeria, Korea, United Kingdom and Commonwealth of States (formerly USSR) according to National Council of State posters of care for. Of those, more than half were from the Philippines, which educate thousand more nurses than what the country needfully (Friess, 2002).The U.S. is a net importer of medical and breast feeding professionals from the Philippines. The bring on on the June 2006 nurse carte du jour exam leak in the Philippines has snowballed, settling on a query to Filipino nurses credibility and ability in the provision of health care and safety to American Community, non lone(prenominal) to solve treat shortage crisis in America.This paper discusses the important issue of irregularities in treat get on with exams. After introducing the topic, a discussion on the essence of breast feeding ethics is made. The next section briefly presents the recent Philippine breast feeding Board exam to the U.S. breast feeding radiation diagram, followed by a critical abbreviation on this issue. The summary, conclusions and recommendations are presented in the last section.In Respect to the Nursing InsigniaThe treat insignia, although it disappears, the meaning still embarks the true identity of the nurse in the nursing practice as a health care provider with caring attitude possess knowledge symbolizes by the nursing cap, the crown glory of intelligence and the uniform is a picture perfect of goodness and cleanliness living with ethics and morale which are molded inside the nursing school.Although the profession of nursing is as ancient as medicine, and may arouse the grea examen right to the Cup of Hygieia as its symbol, most of the nursing customs use a lamp or candle, which is non only in reposition of Florence Nightingale, but which represents the light o f knowledge, the central emblem of quality health care.The direct of knowledge of nursing graduates is mea certaind by nursing board examsa licensure examination to eligibly practice the nursing profession. The exam regulates the legal nursing practice as a profession by assessing the basic nursing train competency which considers the objectives of the nursing curriculum, the broad areas of nursing and former(a) related disciplines and competencies.The unity of foreign licensing systems ultimately affects the health and safety of patients in the United States, a primary consideration of CGFNS in its role in evaluating candidates under U.S. in-migration law (The manila paper Times, 2007).Impact of Philippine Nursing Board interrogation Leakage to U.S. Nursing PracticeThe Philippines is the leading source of nurses to the United States, with several(prenominal) thousand Filipino nurses migrating there each year. However, the U.S. National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN ) and the National Council Licensure trialination (NCLEX) delayed their approval for the Philippines accreditation as a interrogatory center of the U.S. National Commission on Licensure Examination (NCLEX) for nurses.The shelved application is caused by the direct repercussion of the nursing board exam leak indignation. It crest two hours of grilling earlier on Philippine assurances of exam certification and housecleaning after fraud marred its own nursing board tests last June 2006 (Bondoc, 2007).The United States Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools (CGFNS) induce all Filipino nurses with 2006 licenses, who wished to work in the US, to recapture the two sets of tests that investigators express were leaked to several nursing freshen up centers in manila, the Philippine capital (Cabreza, 2007). The retake of the tests is to allow nurses who protracted the leak-tainted 2006 nursing board and are wishing to work in the United States to secure UV Visa-Screen ce rtificates as required by the CGFNS (Rodis, 2007).The Philippines shape as bingle of the worlds top producers of nurses could be jeopardise as it significantly tainted the credibility of Filipino nurses abroad collectible to the recent examinations irregularities. The scandal allegedly involved leakage materials of the June 2006 Philippine nursing board examinations of at least 200 wonders. Some members of the nursing board were accused of receiving bribes from the owners of nursing review centers in exchange for leaking some test questions (Asian Pacific Post, 2007).Sometime after the board exam was held, the whistleblowers who exposed the express irregularity wrote to the PRC in June 2006 to report that handwritten copies of two sets of examination were circulated among examinees who took their review at a particular review center during the material examination period (Cabreza, 2007). The initial charges were made by students who tell that the chairperson of the Philippi ne Nurses Association, who apparently is the owner and director of a nursing review center and a nursing school, had given the exam questions to students who had taken his coach classes with the final coaching at SM Cinema in Manila (The Filipino shew sensitivespaper, 2007).Many of the whistleblowers who exposed cheating maintain obdurate to take a new licensure test to remove the stigma of the scandal (Cabreza, 2007). Only 68.96% (9,198) substantiate passed the nursing board retake out of 13,338 nurses who voluntarily retook, concluded that the quality of education is becoming a real issue, in particular in light of the recent cheating/leak in the said board exams (Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2007 Rodis, 2007).After the said disclosures were made, officials and industry experts cautioned that the countrys status as one of the top sources in the world for nurses would inevitably be adversely affected (Conde, 2006). In fact, this scandal has already demonstrated far-reaching im pact on Filipino nursesaside from some untoward incidents regarding racial discrimination in primetime American showsindicating that such scandal inevitably involved the entire Philippines.For one, one episode of the hit ABC series Desperate Housewives involved Teri Hatcher scornful the Filipino residential area when she malignly depicted that Philippine medical schools are producing substandard, modest andworseinept medical practitioners. Another is Jay Lenos similar stimulus on his late night show The Tonight Show. Unfortunately, the in a higher place incidents gave rise to some political humors across America.A Critical abstractThe nursing board exam leak scandal in the Philippines brought legal, respectable and political issues confronting professional nursing today, including in the U.S., as the Philippines is its prime source of manpower to address the ever-escalating shortage of nurses. Better compensation packagesor but a better life for the nurse and her/his familyh ave been achieved notwithstanding honest and moral of standards of nurses everywhere.The Philippines has had a long history of corruption and low standards of ethics especially in politics and business. The Philippine nursing schools diploma mill around and review centers, for years, have been earning significantly, capitalizing on the nursing shorted in the developed world. In a country where cheating with impunity has become the norm rather than the exclusion and where remittances from exported skilled professionals literally keep the economy afloat, the leaks that marred the last nursing board exam and the desperate effort to preserve the examinations credibility in the aftermath were bound to happen.The issue of the scandal is the issue of pathetic dreamers who disparage the long-untainted credibility of the nursing institutions in the new era in wasted for some cheap dollars. That there was a leak in the Board of Nursing exams is nothing more than a symptom of the nations deep cancers.However, the chemical reaction of the academe, the Board of Nursing, the NCLEX, the CGFNS, the hospitals, the physicians and the other professionals abroad could form part of the cure. In fact, indications are that there is a collective effort of many quarters to do directly address the issue. For one, the resignation of the president and the vice president of the Philippine Nursing Association and the Board of Nursing would properly set the dance step for reforms within the nursing practice as well as in the academe.The report that some esteemed hospitals, clinics and recruitment agencies around the globe would not accept Nursing graduates from 2006 unless steps were taken to ensure that they indeed are worthy of the title of Registered Nurse, and the battle beingness waged by deans of prestigious nursing schools to stop the Philippines Professional Regulation Commission from administering the professional reprobation to successful examinees until the issue is res olved, all provides some sense of hope that there are still many among who refuse to allow precious nursing institution from prostituting itself.This is not an accident that this resolve has come from those involved in caring for peoples health. It reflects a sentiment now sweeping across the country and other concerned countries among health professionals. It has little to do with dollar remittances and the betoken of a good life.Hence, this battle to preserve the integrity and credibility of the nursing board exam is much more than that. It goes beyond making sure that the nurses who assist in the operating room or administer medicines to patients dont end up doing harm, although this is a big part of the issue. The battle is but a part of a bigger struggle to restore decency, integrity, and honor in country long-plagued by political instability and economic woes.The nursing insignia is being deprived of its cleanliness and purity of morale and intelligence. The white uniform is being stained with the filth of dishonesty and devious acts of betrayal to the nursing profession as the profession of cleanliness and purity. The light of knowledge taught by nursing schools has been diminished with tincture and blindness in the search for greener pastures.The real oppression is to the successful examinees who did not cheat, the hardships should not been paved with shame just because they are being called to insert in something beyond themselves. The only way cheating can be avoided in the future would be if those investigating the leak could pinpoint those who benefited from them and have only these persons retake the subjects. Needless to say, the perpetrators must be punished.It was Gandhi who said that our value become our destiny. What will happen to the destiny of those nurses with prejudiced value and what will happen if those nurses will hold the health of the American community? What will be the destiny of the American health care system if the health care providers credibility remains a big question?The nursing exam scandal is an opportunity to rediscover and reclaim the values that have been forced to be denied and even discardedjust for the rice beer of surviving. This unfortunate scandal can, however, prove to be one of the greatest blessings for this nation, because it energy finally drive home the point that there can be no true progress and success unless they have their hearts in the right place. Call it a counterculture of sorts, or simply a inhering reaction to anything in excess.But the fact is that all over the Philippines, doctors, nurses and other health professionals are starting to heed the call to be more than just healers. There is a growing realization that Filipino nurses must use their professions to help begin a revolution of the heart from the shadow up. It might be the only way to eventually force existent change at the top.Summary, Conclusions & RecommendationsThe American Dream, the reverie of greene r pasture in the the three estates of milk and honey, has driven the perpetuators to commit the crime against nursing profession and the morality. The opportunities brought around by nursing shortage and nursing exodus has forced the nursing system failures.The quality of nursing education is becoming the real issue as there are 460 nursing schools in the Philippines and 50 of which have already been ordered by the Professional Regulation Commission of the Philippines to be closed down as nothing more than diploma mill about (Rodis, 2007). The exam fraud was but a part of the bigger job of nursing.And there is also the issue of poor education. Schools, cashing in on a surge of enrolments from news of a nurse shortage in America, were steamed out around 80,000 graduates per year. But only 32,000 or so are able to pass the board test, and only 2,000 easily get jobs in top hospitals (Bondoc, 2007). The nursing shortage is not the number one bother in America, but if one takes a c loser look, this may repeal to a greater problem of hiring half-baked nurses.The illicit release of exam questions in the Philippines is an indication of deeper problems plaguing the Philippine health care system. Desperate to pass the nursing exam and work abroad, many students easily fall dupe to such scams. Diploma mill nursing schools and review centers have used this desperation and will do anything to compete for more students and more profits. In the end, the quality of nursing education, profession and the whole health care system suffers.Nurses in the United States involved directly or indirectly in the recruitment of nurses from the Philippines should consider only candidates with a minimum two- to three-year work ascertain and completely desist from hiring fresh graduates. By doing so, the Filipino nursing community in the United States would help ensure the continued flow of only qualified and well-trained professionals into the American healthcare system.ReferencesAs ian Pacific Post. (2007). Filipino Nurses Exam Scandal.Bondoc, J. (2007). NCLEX in Manila Open by Mid-Year. ABS-CBN Interactive.Buerhaus, P.I., Staiger, D.O. & Auerbach, D.I. (2000). Implications of an Aging Registered Nurse Workforce. daybook of the American Medical Association, 283, 29482954.Cabreza, V. (2007). Whistleblowers in 2006 Nursing Test Leak manoeuvre New Exams. Philippine Daily Inquirer.Conde, C.H. (2006). Cheating on Exam Taints stand of Philippine nurses. International Herald Tribune Asia Pacific.Philippine Daily Inquirer. (2007). Results of June 06 Nursing Board Retake Out.Friess, S. (2002). U.S. Looks Abroad for Nurses. USA Today.Jenkins, C. (2003). Filipino Nurses Make a New Life in a New Place. St. Petersburg Times.Moore, J.L. (2007). Nursing Wages Rise, deficit Continues. The Morning News.Office of the Press Secretary, Philippines. (2007). Declaration of RP as NCLEX Testing state of affairs Hailed as a Triumph for Filipino Nurses.Rodis, R. (2007). The Nursi ng Scandal. Philippinenews.com.The Filipino Express Newspaper. (2007). Court Asked Stop Nurses Oath-taking.The Manila Times. (2007). U.S. Nixes VisaScreen Papers for June 06 Nursing Board Passers. Manila The Manila Times.Vujicic , M., Zurn, P., Diallo, K., Adams, O. & and Dal Poz, M.R. (2004). The Role of Wages in the Migration of Health sympathize with Professionals from Developing Countries. Human Resources for Health, 2, 3.

Economic globalization and environment change Essay

Ever since the evolution of orbicularization, which began in 1990s, Asia and Europe dumbfound been benefiting with industrial success and stinting development. As a matter of point internationalisation is lead by joined States under the leadership of WTO and get together Nations. sphericalisation has real a business net train connectivity through profit technology bringing global businesses to a single platform change exchange of goods, services and technologies. Globalization operates on predetermined success followed by global norms of business principles, bringing a change in global civil society at a macro level.Some of the benefits of globalization argon, increased employment opportunities in computer technology, opportunities to commence new businesses, mountain range for finding new customers through Internet. Globalization is not similar to internationalization, which bushel a fact that in come out to encourage globalization, political and scotch processes of n ations also guide to be globalized to be in tune with globalization. Globalization dejection be successful, only when a nations economic policies be globalized.This once again reinstates a fact that there is a clear and close interconnectivity between globalization and economic development of nations. stinting globalization expands businesses, industrial sector, technology sector, science and research. Economic development strengthens the financial capacity of nations whether it is through export of goods or by a establish in stock market. Certainly, there is a huge refer on global civil society who directly or indirectly, participate and retaliate by contributing a portion of service to the nation.International global political economy (IPE or GPE) is it in any way related to globalization? In this regard, It is generally agreed that the 1970s have seen perfect changes in the way in which the international political economy is organized, lede to a more than global approac h both in IPE/GPE and environs. (Strange 1996 Scholte, 1993 Mittleman, 1997, Lipschutz, 1996). Further, it is important to understand what the global definition states. the encompassing of the whole ground rather than just regions.thitherfore, it would not be technically, geographically, or indeed spatially correct to habit the term globalization for economic, social, or political phenomena that fall upon only part of the (inhabited) world, as many authors do indeed constitute. (Gabriela Kutting, 2004). The surroundingsalism celebrated its anniversary in the year 2002 conducted by United Nations company on Economic Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. This was followed by 1971 Earth daytime which framed the importance of global civil society. And it was 40 years since unspoken Spring (Carson 1962) began the consciousness-raising work that many now credit with the birth of milieualism as a social movement in America. ( Sheila Jasanoff, Marybeth Long Martello. 2004)The con cept global in contemporary environmentalism remains in this respect as essentially contested as are liberty and accountability in parliamentary politics. For now the struggle to define global may be one of the best avenues we have for engaging in a pregnant politics of globalism. (Sheila Jasanoff, Marybeth Long Martello, 2004) Protecting environment is an important aspect in global perspective. Conservation of forests, protection of wildlife, natural resources, controlling tribe, construction of dams, disco biscuit and infrastructure of states, are some of the basic criteria of a well developed nation, for which governments allocate a portion of budget every year. Global thaw is also payable to the cause of spendthrift industrialization and industrial pollution.Glaciers are also one of the causes, to the rise of water level in seas and oceans, causing floods, cyclones or other natural disasters to environment. United Nations has particularly been following up with island sta tes in order to minimize the impact of the UN Decade for Natural happening Reduction. In simple form to explain, economic globalization leads to emission of more hazardous industrial gas, green house gases and automobile pollution. As a result of this, the health of environment is damaged bringing new sicknesses and epidemics much(prenominal) as SARS to people.There is a particular concern in 21st century approximately protecting environment above the parameters of economic development through globalization. From the times of 1940, when the actual industrialization began in United States till the present date, when globalization and industrialization has reached its peak and is still emergence at a robust rate, a significant concern has emerged about global warming and about emission of green house gases, the causes of which have to be dealt with on an emergent need, which if ignored, may further deteriorate environment in a vast measure.This discussion of economic globalization and environment change are affecting each other, and it is important to give due consideration to each issue as a separate individuality i. e. economic globalization advantages, disadvantages and its impact. Similarly the changes in environment, its negative impacts and effects and how these can be prevented. Especially environmental system brings huge unforeseen losses, such as loss of human lives in Tsunami (2004), Katrina ((2005), epidemics and loss of industrial houses and businesses, and in view of these, funds for disaster management have to be adequately provided.A periodical report of economic globalization and its impact on global civil society and above all, environment change moldiness be followed by United Nations, WTO and World desire in order to monitor, organize globalization and environment. The present world population is crossing the delimitate of six billion, which reveals a fact that, it is important to protect environment for the base hit and secured healt h of its people. Further economic development has further disadvantage with devaluation of coin and inflation. Globally accepted currency for exchange of goods and services is admittedly U.S. Dollar. A nations financial strength is determined by its regional currency exchange with U. S dollar. When U. S. dollar is devalued, it has a greater impact on all those nations, which are in trade with United States.At the beginning of 1970s, Americans faced two economic problems declining competitiveness and rising inflation. In 1971, for the first time in the twentieth century, the United States posted a trade deficit, meaning that Americans purchased more goods from other countries than they sold to people subsisting in those countries. Robert K. Schaeffer, 2005) Further U. S spends huge amounts on wars such as Iraq (2003) and disaster management for Katrina (2005) which further adds to the deficit of U. S. budget. These unforeseen events, lead to an excessive monetary pressure on govern ments resulting in deficit budget and in slowing down the growth in economy, resulting in inflation. This further puts work pressure on workers of industries to produce more output as compared to the systematic working hours.Whenever there is a crisis in government, the negative impact of crisis affects its population both financially and at emotional level. On August 15, 1971, chairwoman Richard Nixon confronted both problems simultaneously. To improve U. S. competitiveness, he took steps to devalue the dollar in relation to currencies in Western Europe and Japan. And to fight inflation, he introduced charge and wage controls, which were designed to limit wage raises and price increases.The Nixon shocks, as these were called in Japan, marked the beginning of U. S. efforts to solve two serious economic problems. (Robert K. Schaeffer, 2005) There is financial crisis existing in all parts of the world. The World Bank and other respective regional Central Banks have been funding nati ons, to use funds in order to sustain financial crisis. Conclusion protection of environment vis-a-vis economic development along with globalization are equally important for global economy whereas appropriate measures have to be considered.

Due Process Model

I believe that the due cover model (which puts violence on an individuals castigates) is essential and should constantly be our primary focus of this lamentable justice frame, although under the due function model there is a probability of criminals being set free or acquitted due to some technicality where individuals rights had been violated. As humans, we make fractures and as we grow, we will envision from such mistakes.To affirm that those rights would not be violated again, but to allot a persons to be wrongfully convicted and sent to prison is a mistake that is unforgivable, one that can not be held to the standard we live and we chequer and in my opinion, shows our justice system at its weakest. The Fourth Amendment posses the right against unreasonable search and seizure and probable cause is set ahead so that law enforcement cannot conduct searches without proper evidence.The combination of the due process model and the right against illegal search and seizures will allow for politics to rightfully obtain the information and evidence required for a doctrine without the problem of the direct violation of an individuals rights. The Fifth Amendment declares that, nor shall any person be compelled in any criminal case to be a avow against himself The right to remain silent. The criminate should not have to testify or say anything that would incriminate them. Under the due process model the accused is loose until proven guilty.If believed to be in fact guilty of a crime, it is law enforcement duty to collect any evidence that would affirm that belief. No person should be forced to self incriminate or to the apology of guild. The Sixth Amendment allows the right to a speedy trial. Unfortunately, this is not usually the case. The system is often under very heavy workloads and the proper preparation of cases. thusly the accused is unfairly made to wait weeks sometimes months for their trial. Meanwhile the hapless of that individual and thei r family member increases by the day.With the due process model, those individuals would immediately be brought to trial. The Eighth Amendment apposes the use of cruel and unusual punishment. Once again, and individual is innocent until proven guilty. However, once accused of a crime the stigma is enforce and one will be guilty in some eye regardless of what has or has not been proven and sometimes, I fear, one would be treated in a cruel and unusual manner. With the due process model, no persons accused would ever be harmed, physical or other in any way.

Economic analysis of deposit insurance Essay

national unsex Insurance Corporation was an institution set by governing back in 1930s to protect steriliseors fund held by bank. In the great depression of 1930 most depositors lost their fund following the break dance of m whatever banks. After the stock grocery crash in 1929, fiscal market was adversely affected and by March 1933 more than 9,000 banks had already failed and this facilitated cheek of FDIC. Henceforth it has been evolving and finding alternative ways of insuring depositors fund against potency bank insolvency.FDIC guarantees a specific amount of deposit and checking for member banks. Since it establishment FDIC paid depositors in 1988 following the banking crisis fueled by high busy rate, inflation, recession and deregulation in the banking sector. More than 200 banks were in a liquidity problem and FDIC had to intervene to settle claims by depositors.Role of deposit damages in the economyThe main purpose of deposit constitution is to create financial sta bility in the economy. Majority of pot did non bother to check whether their deposit was insured under deposit insurance but following the present-day(prenominal) financial crisis which started in mid 2007 which dictum many banks and other company becoming insolvent most people areincreasingly becoming aware of the role and importance of deposit insurance in the economy. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 temporarily increased the basic limit of deposit insurance from $100,000 to $250,000 (Robert, 2009).Advocates of free market view deposit insurance as part of government encumbrance in the market and criticize it on the basis that a agonistical market is self ordinance and will act to correct any deviation that occurs in the market. however the great depression of 1930s and the current financial crisis has proved that the market is not always self regulating and therefore there is a need for government intervention as proposed by Keynes in order to correct devi ation in the market. although the stain little economist argued that in a competitive market system price, remuneration and interest rate would freeally adjust to restore the economy to plenteous employment levels there existed certain factors such as investment demand, specie demand, union and monopoly power that inhibited the automatic mechanism assumed by classical writers.Keynes advocate for discretion fiscal policies given the failure of automatic forces as a counter cyclical device to oppose say trends in business cycles. In period of massive unemployment and depression, expansionary fiscal policy was required by government to solve the problem in less time than automatic forces ever could (Stephen, 2008).Deposit insurance creates confidence among the common and avoid panic traceals as those occasioned in UK when information reached the public that Union bank was experiencing liquidity problem and many account holder were queuing to withdraw there money from the bank. During the current financial crisis where many bank were state insolvent FDIC compensated many deposit holders whowould otherwise lost their deposit. This not only helps to maintain financial stability but also make better scotch growth (Robert & George, 2006).Where people receive compensation they will be able to increase the level of spending on goods and services. This increase in aggregate demand forces supplies to increase output in order to encounter the growing demand. Supplies will in turn require additional stimulant in term of labor, material and capital which reduces unemployment and increase economic growth. The graph below indicates the role that deposit insurance can play during economic crisis for instance the current financial crisis.

Animals of Wonderland

TITLE The Animals of Wonderland Tenniel as Carrolls Reader SOURCE Criticism 45 no4 383-415 F totally(prenominal) 2003 The powder store publishing firm is the copyright h sr. of this article and it is reproduced with permission. pull ahead reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher http//wsupress. wayne. edu/ ROSE LOVELL-SMITH WHEN JOHN TENNIEL was providing 42 deterrent examples for Alices Adventures in Wonderland in 1864 he was in his mid-forties, an established illustrator and a Punch car withalnist.At that succession C. L. Dodgson and Lewis Carroll were equally unkn induce as authors, for adults or children. Tenniel, on the other hand, already had a professional body politic of the optic codes and illustrative techniques of his daytime, and already had an audiencean adult rather than a child audiencewho would expect from him a certain direct of technical proficiency, humor, and social nous.Tenniels illustrations should thereof delight us today non provided for their remarkable and continuing success as a felicitous subsidiary to Carrolls text, simply in any case as the firstarguably, the outstripVictorian drill or variation of Carrolls text. After all, as a subscriber Tenniel enjoyed grand advantages, including his personal position and experience, his nettle to the authors own illustrations to the manuscript version of the story, and access to the author himself.In his study of illustration in childrens literature, Words ab disclose Pictures, Perry Nodelman has argued that the beliefs in a sequence act as schemata for each otherthat is, all the expectations, understanding, and learning we bring to reading an illustrated book, and all the information we accumulate as our reading proceeds, becomes a schema for each newfangled varlet of linguistic communi tossion and each new picture as we continue without a book. (FN1) If this is so, all Tenniels choices relating to event matter, sizing, position, and style of illustration essential come to operate, as we proceed through Alice in Wonderland, as a kind of address to reading Carrolls text. An examination of Tenniels gap sequence of illustrations as they appe atomic number 18d on the foliate in the 1866 edition of Alice in Wonderland(FN2) entrust therefore pay off to break off Tenniels preoccupations, the kind of interpretation of Carrolls text he is nterested in making. As William Empson pointed out in 1935, two aspects of Alice argon traditional in childrens stories the root word of characters of eccentric size of it (miniatures and giants) and the idea of the talking beast. (FN3) Tenniels enterprisingness drawing, the White Rabbit at the head of chapter 1, draws on both these traditions. The mouse h are occupies a point amidst puppet and head for the hillser-hearted, simultaneously both these things and neither of them, an implication scarce make so firmly by Carrolls text.The ra bbitness of the rabbit is emphasized by the hay knowledge domain setting, the absence of trousers, and the careful attention paid to anatomy and proportion. But the rabbit is slightly distorted towards the tender-hearted by his upright posture, his clothing and accessories, his pose, and his gentlemans gentleman eye and hand. Less obviously, Tenniel in addition attachs Carrolls text by offering information intimately the size of the rabbit. From the grass and dandelion clock (a visual joke) in the background the reader grasps the rabbit as rather larger than regulation bunny size more(prenominal)(prenominal) or less the size of a toddler or small child, by chance.As this illustration was invented by Tenniel (Carrolls headpiece illustration shows Alice, her sister, and the book), the contrast is light up amongst Carroll, whose picture draws attention to the var. of the story, to the affectionate kinship of sisters, and thereby to Alices membership of the human family, a nd Tenniel, who selects a traditional story idea that shifts the t caricaturer close to other way, toward a mediation surrounded by opposite kinds known from those umpteen forms of art in which animal behavior is apply to represent human behavior.In further illustrations, Tenniel offers more images connotative of unusual carnal knowledge size. The second picture, scallywag 8, shows Alice too large to go through the footling door. On knave 10 she holds the bottle labeled DRINK ME which will shrink her on page 15 she is growing taller, with the text elongated to match. Then comes page 18, where the frame and larger size suggest that here is an primary(prenominal) picture. In it the human/animal rabbit and the idea of Alices unusual size evanesce together.Alice looks gigantic in relation to the residence, and the White Rabbit, normal size for the hallway (it seems) n invariablytheless perhaps (in that case) outsize for a rabbit, is more than(prenominal) reduced from the splendor he assumed in the first illustration and is shown fleeing from her terrifying figure. The puss of tears illustration on page 26 also relates to these pendent fields. here a fully clad human, Alice, is depicted much the equivalent size as the unclothed mouse with which she swims.Note, too, that in the text, Alice frightens the mouse away as she had previously frightened the rabbit, although this time it is by talking astir(predicate) her pet, her cat Dinah. The reader who ponders this opening sequence of illustrations office reflect that Alice would also be frightened of Dinah if she met her bandage still mouse-sized. The schemata, then, direct the reader towards a thumping of ideas in which animal fears and anxieties about survival are connected with images of lesser or gr depleteer relative size. FN4) Tenniel appears to allow arrived at this interpretation respectively age he does frequently follow Carrolls designs nigh in the subject and overall approac h to an illustration (Michael Hancher provides rough useful opportunities to make comparisons),(FN5) of the pictures vertical discussed altogether the champion of Alice growing taller at the head of chapter 2 very(prenominal)(prenominal) much resembles a parallel drawing in Carrolls manuscript. more thanover, when Tenniel does follow Carroll in choice of subject he usually makes signifi gr prey dealt changes in intervention Tenniels Alice, for instance, having slipped into the pool of tears, is very much more alarmed than Carrolls Alice. (FN6) Edward Hodnett, who re intendinged Tenniels work for the Alice books picture by picture, makes rather slighting remarks about s foreveral of the designs in this opening sequence those on pages 8 and 10 are too unglamourous to be necessary, the elongated Alice stands merely looking round-eyed, and the second vignette of Alice travel with the mouse makes the first superfluous. (FN7) Hodnett seems to me to have missed the point. These d esigns are in my persuasion extremely consistent in seeking and developing a f courseure nexus of ideas. Despite the evident connection between many another(prenominal) Tenniel illustrations and Carrolls own illustrations, then, this is clearly Tenniels own interpretation. But if this is so, what is to be do of it?My thesis in this paper is that through his animal drawings, Tenniel offers a visual angle on the text of Alice in Wonderland that evokes the life sciences, inherent account, and Darwinian ideas about evolution, ideas closely related by Tenniel to Alices size changes, and to how these affect the animals she meets. (FN8) As I will show, this is divergely a matter of Tenniels drawing out an underlying field of origin in Carrolls text. I will also argue, however, that when Tenniels approach to his animal subjects is compared to that in earlier and modern illustrated congenital istory books, the viewer is conscious of resemblances which luff that Tenniels pictures ar e best situated and read in that setting. The effect of the initial sequence described above, for instance, is that as chapter 3 unfolds Alices encounters with various different putzs, the illustrations begin to re-create Alice itself as a kind of zany native chronicle for children. Our post-Freudian view of Alice in Wonderland tends to be of a private, heavily encoded, inward exploration or adventure.But Tenniels reading, I would argue, offers us an outward-looking text, a public adventure, a jocose reflection on the indispensable account craze, on reading about vivid history, and on Darwins controversial new theory of natural option. I will repossess to Tenniel as reader later, only if in suppose to establish that this interpretation is no mere add-on but a genuine response to the text, I must first deal with science, natural history, and evolutionary ideas as understructures that Carroll himself originates.Interest in present-day(a) ideas about the animal region is signaled early on in Alice in Wonderland, in chapter 2, when Alice finds that the well-known childrens reading piece How doth the microscopic busy bee has been mysteriously ousted from her look by new verses that celebrate a maraudery animal, the crocodile. Carrolls parody of Isaac Wattss pious poem for children(FN9) thereby establishes his books reference to a newer, more scientific view of natureapproaching a controversially Darwinist view.It does this by mocking and displacing the humanityview often called natural theology. According to natural theology, a set of convictions much touted in childrens reading, Gods existence can be deduced from the wondrous design of his human race. The universe is benign and meaningful, a book of signs ( same the prompt bee) of Gods benevolent and educative intentions just waiting to be read by humans. Carrolls crocodile, all tooth and claw, signifies other things amorality, the fight for existence, depredation of the weaker by the stronge r.Readers of Alice in Wonderland are also kindredly to notice that the animal characters do not do or talk much like animals in traditional butt tales or fables. They are neither helpers nor donors nor monsters nor prophetic truth-tellers, the main narrative functions of animals in traditional fairy tales,(FN10) but nor are they the exemplary figures illustrative of human fallibilities and moralities familiar from fables. They do not teach lessons about kindness to animals, as animals in childrens stories often did, and they do not much resemble the creatures in nursery rhymes or jingles or Edward Lears nonsensical poems either.Instead, they talk, chopping logic, competing with Alice and each other, and often mentioning things natural animals ability be imagined to talk about, like fear, death, and being eaten. I think Denis Crutch is also roughly right when he points out that there is in Alice a hierarchy of animals equivalent to the Victorian class system but also suggesting a competitive model of nature the white rabbit, caterpillar, and establish Hare seem to be gentlemen, frog and lean are footmen, pinnacle the lizard is bullied by everybody, porcupines and flamingos are do use of, and the dormouse and the guinea bulls eyes are victimized by larger animals and by humans. FN11) William Empsons 1935 essay notes how Carrolls ideas and manuscript illustrations buster evolutionary theories with Alice in Wonderland. (FN12) This is a crucial point and, I believe, the best explanation for the presence of so many animals in Wonderland. It was after all Carroll who put a dodo, best known for being extinct, into the text,(FN13) and Carroll who first include an ape, that refer symbol of evolutionary debate, in his drawing of the motley bunch of beasts in the pool of tears.But Carrolls evolutionary reference is much more spacious than Empson found it, for a Darwinist view of life as competitive struggle is also promoted by Alice, whoapparently unconsciou sly, as if she really cannot help itrepeatedly reminds us that in life one must either eat or be eaten. Alice will keep talking about Dinah to the small creatures she meets who are the natural victims of cats (26-27), she has to admit to the pigeon that she herself has eaten eggs (73), and in the Mock tip over scene she has to check herself rather than reveal that she has eaten lobster and whiting (148, 152).The Mock Turtle, of course, is a very creature of the control panel, charm Dinah the predator, the aboveground cat, has a place retained for her in Wonderland by the Cheshire Cat, a friendly but slightly sullen appearing and disappearing cat whose nearly significant body part is his grinning, tooth-filled mouth (he grins like the crocodile, as Nina Auerbach has noted). (FN14) The little bright-eyed terrier of which the aboveground Alice is so tender (27) also has other-selves in Wonderland, Fury in the Mouses drool, the pup in chapter 4.Moreover, the Mouses Talethe next poem in the book after the crocodile poem duologue about predation as if it were a levelheaded process. The reader should therefore take the hint and connect the animal eat or be eaten motif elsewhere in the story with the trial scene in the last stage of the book. Carroll has the White Rabbit make this association of ideas when he mutters The Duchess The Duchess Oh my dear pawsOh my fur and whiskers Shell get me executed, as sure as ferrets are ferrets (41). This is one of those moments when Alice reveals its ferocious under up-to-date. The White Rabbit here anticipates legal execution as simultaneous with the process of being prepared for table that is, these civilized human behaviors are proffered by Carroll as analogous to predation by a natural enemy, ferrets.Alice herself, by kicking Bill the lizard up the chimney (an incident memorably illustrated by Tenniel in a very funny picture) and by looking on approvingly while the guinea pigs are so unkindly treated in court, inve rts the theme of kindness to animals established in more orthodox childrens literature like Maria Edgeworths tale of Simple Susan, where a missys pet lamb is dispense withd from the slaughterers knife. FN15) In Alice in Wonderland there is humorous delight in the defalcation of the creatures in the croquet scene, and there are many other versions of a cruel amusement park in the book for instance, Alice imagines herself being set to regard as a mousehole by her own cat. She also resents being ordered about by mice and rabbits (46)a phrase that suggests the humanity upside down of carnival but which readiness also be taken as summing up the new evolutionary predicament of humanity.Fallen down the rabbit hole from her sneering position at the top of the Great Chain of Being, Alice instead finds herself, through a serial of size changes, continually being repositioned in the regimen chain. The importance of the theme of predation, the motif of feeding and being eaten, is su ch(prenominal) that it has attracted a number of commentaries. It is fully described by Margaret Boe Birns in Solving the unrestrained Hatters Riddle and by Nina Auerbach in Alice and Wonderland A Curious Child. (FN16) Birns remarks in opening her essay that Most of the creatures in Wonderland are relentless carnivores, and they eat creatures who, save for some outer physical divergencys, are very like themselves, united, in fact, by a common humanity. Birns therefore even cites a crocodile-eating fish as a case of cannibalism,(FN17) quoting in support of this idea Alices nourish Do lets pretend that Im a hungry hyaena and youre a bead (Looking-Glass, 8). She also remarks that Wonderland contains creatures whose only degree of self-definition is expressing a desire to be eaten or drunk, and offers other comments on scenes in Through the Looking-Glass where, as she puts it, nutriment can become human, human beings can become food. (FN18) I do not always find cannibal readings s upported by the parts of the text in question.Auerbach also makes claims about cannibalism, but a little differently, referring the idea of eat or be eaten back to Alice, her subtly cannibalistic hunger,(FN19) the unconscious cannibalism involved in the very fact of eating and the desire to eat. (FN20) Auerbach associates this interpretation with Dodgsons own attitude to food. But textual support for the quality Auerbach calls Alices cannibalism seems lacking. Alice does not really eye the other animals in her pool of tears with a strange hunger as Auerbach suggests,(FN21) nor do the Hatter and the Duchess sing maddened songs about eating as Auerbach claims. FN22) To describe a panther eating an owl as cannibalism, Auerbach(FN23) must assume (like Birns) that the creatures in Alice are decidedly to be read as humans in fur and feathers. My blood line of credit is that they need not be so read the point might be their and Alices animal nature. Nor does the food at Queen Alices d inner society at the end of Through the Looking-Glass begin to eat the guests(FN24) as Auerbach claims, although food does misbehave in Looking-Glass and the Pudding might have this in mind (Looking-Glass, 206).Overall, however, in my view the preoccupation of Alice in Wonderland with creatures eating other creatures is much better accounted for by the more sinister and Darwinian aspects of nature(FN25) which Auerbach and Birns(FN26) also recognize as a part of the Alice books. I now shine to my main line of business, that Tenniels illustrations pick up on but also extend this Darwinist and natural history field of reference in Carrolls text.As already noted, Tenniels drawings of animals do not stylistically suggest a childrens fairy tale(FN27) but rather produce Alice as a kind of natural history by resembling those in the plentiful and lavishly illustrated prevalent natural histories of the day (see figs. 1 and 2). My argument therefore differs from Michael Hanchers, which emp hasizes social and satirical contexts by equivalence pictures of various Wonderland and Looking-Glass creatures to those in Tenniels and others Punch cartoons. FN28) While Hancher establishes the relationship with Punch as an crucial one, however, the most convincing animal resemblances he reproduces from Alice in Wonderland (I am not here concerned with Through the Looking-Glass) amount to only two pictures, the Cheshire Cat in a tree resembling the Up a maneuver cartoon of a raccoon,(FN29) and the ape on page 35 of Alice resembling the ape in Bombas Big Brother,(FN30) Tenniels frog footman and fish footman are Grandvillian figures with animal heads but human bodies, and also evidently suggest social commentary.But they stand asunder from the argument I am presenting here because no effort is made by Tenniel to present them as animals. The satiric side of Tenniels animal illustrations in Alice, hinted at by echoes of Punch, is never very dominant, then, and should not be seen a s precluding another field of reference in natural history reading.The scope, persistence, eccentricity, and variety show of the natural history crazeor rather, series of crazesthat swept Britain between 1820 and 1870 are described for the general reader by Lynn Barber in The Heyday of intrinsic level and by others in more change publications, and need not be redescribed here. (FN31) The importance of illustration in contemporary natural history publishing, however, is central to my argument and must be fey on briefly.Even in the mid nose candy climate of Victorian self-improvement and self-education, the volume of this well-established offset printing of publishing is impressive the standard of illustration in popular periodicals and books was high, and gross revenue were also impressively high in Victorian terms. Rev. John George timber, accord to his son and biographer Theodore Wood, a pioneer in writing natural history in nontechnical language, had reasonable sales for h is one-volume The Illustrated Natural chronicle in 1851 and very reasoned sales for Common Objects of the Sea Shore in 1857.But when Routledge brought out his lavishly illustrated Common Objects of the Country in 1858 it sold 100,000 copies in spite of appearance a week of publication, and the first edition was followed by many others, a figure worth comparing with Darwins more modest first-edition sell-out of 1,250 copiesor, indeed, with Dickenss sales of thoroughgoing(a) House (1852), which were 35,000 in the first two years.The result of Woods success was a much grander publishing venture by Routledge, Wain and Routledge, a three-volume The Illustrated Natural account statement with new drawings including some by Joseph Wolf volume 1 (1859) was on mammals, volume 2 (1862) on birdsthe frontispiece is reproduced in figure 2and volume 3 (1863) on reptiles, fish, and mollusks. FN32) Woods astonishingly prolific career as a popularizer, however, of which I have described only a detailed fraction (he was dashing off such productions as Anecdotes of Animal Life, either Boys Book, and Feathered Friends in this decade as well), is in line with much other more or less theologically inclined and intellectually respectable natural history publishing in the 1850s and 1860s, often by clergymen.Children were Copernican consumers of such books and periodicals and sometimes are obviously their main market, and a number of fictional works, such as Charles Kingsleys The Water-Babies (1863) and Margaret Gattys Parables from Nature, of which the first four series appeared between 1855 and 1864 (that is, in the decade prior to Carrolls publication of Alice in Wonderland), trespass on the contemporary conviction that natural history was a subject especially appropriate for children. (FN33) Tenniel connects his Alice and natural history illustration by a number of stylistic allusions.He borrows the accomplished techniques of realism, such as the cross-hatching and fine l ines used to suggest light, shade, and solidity of form in the Mock Turtles shell and flippers, or the crabs and lobsters claws. Accuracy in proportion and a high level of anatomic detail are equally important. As can be seen by comparing figures 1 and 2, too, the grouping of subjects may also be suggestivea point first noted by Narda Schwartz, who also move attention to the resemblance between the etching of the dodo in Woods three-volume natural history and Tenniels dodo. FN34) Also significant is the way Tenniels design showing the creatures tardily emerged from the pool of tears includes a rather furry-haired Alice among, and on a level with, the beasts and birds. Carrolls own pictures for the pool of tears sequence have the quite different effect of separating Alice from the animal world, a point 1 will return to. Another Tenniel habit that suggests natural history illustration is his provision of uncomplete but realistic and appropriate backgrounds.Here Tenniels bandstand sometimes miniaturizes the reader, setting the viewpoint low and consequently letting us in on the ground level of a woodland world magnified for our information (compare figs. 3 and 4). When Alice stands on tiptoe to peep over the edge of a mushroom, when she carries the pig baby in the woods or talks to the Cheshire Cat, Tenniel uses a natural natural history technique, placing a familiar woodland flowera foxglovein the background in such away as to remind the reader of Alices size at that time.Similarly, Tenniel makes use of the difference between vignettes for simple or single subjects, and framed illustrations, including full-page illustrations, for larger-scale and more important and complex subjects, in a way that very closely resembles a similar distinction in natural history illustrationpopular natural histories like Woods tend to use large, framed illustrations to make generalised statements, showing, for instance, a group of different kinds of rodent, while vignettes p resent an individual of one species.And above all, although Tenniel certainly endows his creatures with personality and facial expressions, his animals, unlike his humans, are never grotesques. In fact, nineteenth-century natural history illustration also delights in endowing the most solidly realistic creatures with near-human personality or expressiveness, a quality that Tenniel builds on to good effect, for instance, in his depiction of the lawyer-parrots, which remind one of Edward Lears magnificent macaws (see figs. 5, 6, and 7).Thus while Tenniels animal portraits reflect the Victorians pleasure in their expanding knowledge of the variety of creatures in the world, they also faithfully reproduce the contemporary assimilation of this variety to familiar human social types, a sleight of hand of which Audubon, for example, is a command his Great Blue Heron manages also to subtly suggest a sly old gentleman, probably shortsighted, and with side-whiskers. In the visual world dwel l by Tenniel, then, the differing works of Audubon and Grandville (the latter could depict a heron as a priest merely by giving the bird spectacles) steal together.Where few of Tenniels successors have been able to resist the temptation to turn the animals in Alice in Wonderland into cartoon or humorous creations, though, it is Tenniels triumph that he displace his creatures straight, or almost straight the Times review of Alice in Wonderland (December 26, 1865) especially noted for praise Tenniels truthfulness in the delineation of animal forms. (FN35) It was, indeed, his cleverness in drawing animals that first established his reputation as an illustrator, when he provided illustrations for Rev. Thomas Jamess Aesops Fables in 1848. FN36) Can bloodlines for Tenniels remarkable animal drawings be more precisely identified? An early biographer of Tenniel records his acknowledgment that he liked to slip away time observing the animals at the Zoo. (FN37) However, comparisons betw een pictures reveal that in rundown Tenniel almost certainly consulted scientific illustrations or recalled them for his Alice in Wonderland drawings. For example, in the mid-eighteenth century George Edwards produced a hand-colored engraving of a dodo which, he wrote, he had copied from a painting of a live dodo brought from Mauritius to Holland.The original painting was acquired by Sir Hans Sloane, passed on to Edwards, and effrontery by him to the British Museum. (FN38) In 1847 C. A. Marlborough painted a picture of a dodo, which is now in the Ashmolean Museum (it was reproduced on the cover of the magazine Oxford Today in 1999). And in 1862 the second volume of J. G. Woods The Illustrated Natural History includes a picture of a dodo. (FN39) Compare all these with Tenniels dodo (figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11) they sure either have a common ancestor or are copies one from the other. The dodo is a special case in that Tenniel could barely have studied one at the London zoo.But I proc livity to put forward a claim that Woods 1851 one-volume and, later, expanded three-volume Illustrated Natural History were very probably familiar to Carroll and the small Liddells and also to Tenniel, not only because Woods dodo illustration is a practicable source for Tenniels but because these volumes also display smiling crocodiles, baby eagles in their nest, and the lory,(FN40) as well as illustrations of numerous more familiar animals that appear in the words and/or pictures of Alice, including the edible crab, the lobster, the frog, the dormouse, guinea pigs, flamingos, varieties of fancy pigeon, and so forth.Given the compendious nature of Woods works, this is ponderously surprising, of course. But Wood must be favored as the source of animal drawings most probably known to Tenniel for the further reason that Wood illustrations often quite strongly resemble Tenniel illustrations, as readers may evaluate by comparing figures 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16, to the toucan, eagle, an d crab from Alice (see fig. 1) and the lobster and dormouse (see Alice in Wonderland, 157 and 97). (FN41) No matter how good Tenniels famous visual memory, he is unlikely to have drawn such a menagerie without some research.Hancher noted the strong resemblance between a Bewick hedgehog (from the General History of Quadrupeds, 1790, often reprinted) and the evasive croquet-ball hedgehog at Alices feet on page 121. (FN42) Bewicks hedgehog, however, had already been recycled by William Harvey for Woods one-volume Illustrated Natural History where Tenniel is equally likely to have seen and remembered it all three hedgehogs have the same dragging rear foot (see figs. 17, 18, and 19). This is another case, like that of the dodo, where scientific natural history illustrations have been copied, recopied, or reworked for reprinting.A similar argument could be presented about the large number of depictions of sinuous flamingos that Tenniel might have consulted. The volume of contemporary natu ral history publishing for children and adults, the evident contemporary interest in illustrations of animals, and the resemblance between Tenniels and contemporary natural history drawings have important implications the resemblance indicates that Tenniel is here creating the context within which he wants his pictures to be read.He shows us that he saw (and wanted the viewer to be able to see) Carrolls animals as real animals, like those that were the objects of current scientific study and theories, at least(prenominal) as much as he saw them as Grandville or Punch-type instruments of social satire, or fairy-tale or fable talking beasts. (FN43) In line with his scientific interpretation, then, Tenniel in illustrating Alice in Wonderland intensifies Carrolls reference to Darwins theory of evolution by carrying out his own visual editing of the Carroll illustrations in the manuscript.Tenniel makes the ape appear in two consecutive illustrations in the second, it stares thoughtfully into the eyes of the readerappearing to claim kinship. Tenniel includes among the creatures in these illustrations on pages 29 and 35 a fancy pigeon, perhaps a fantail or a pouter, which should in my view be taken as a direct reference to Darwins argument from the selective breeding of fancy pigeon varieties in chapter 1 of The Origin of Species. FN44) A visual detail that Tenniel introduced into the book, the glass dome in the background to the proud garden scene on page 117, looks like the dome at the old Surrey Zoological Gardens(FN45) and therefore constitutes another reference to the study of animals. And as already noted, Tenniel does not reproduce Carrolls rather lonely image of Alice cast aside by the animals, which would have had the effect of separating her human figure from the animal ones and thus emphasizing Alices difference from them.Instead, Tenniel provides two images of Alice among, and almost of, the animal world, developing a radical implication of Carrolls te xt of which Carroll himself was possibly unaware. On the other hand, Carrolls interest in predation, in the motif of eat or be eaten, is not one on which Tenniel expands. No doubt it would have been thought too frightening for children one must recall the care taken by Carroll over the positioning of the Jabberwocky illustration in Through the Looking-Glass. FN46) But while Carrolls text here develops emphaticallyalbeit peripherallysome ideas that Tenniel could only consecrate aside, Tenniels scholarship of the importance of such themes is strongly demonstrated by the puppy picture. This illustration is a particularly large one, dominating the page (55) on which it appears. It is framed, and therefore gives an impression of completion and independent significance, very different from that given by the more common vignette with its intimate and fluid relationship to the text.These things make it probable that the puppy scene and its illustration were especially important in Tenni els reading of Alice in Wonderland. Yet commentaries on Alice in Wonderland tend to ignore the puppy scene, perhaps because critics are often most fire by Carrolls verbal nonsense, and the puppy is speechless. Indeed, Denis Crutch disapproves of the puppy as an intruder from the real world and Goldthwaite takes up this point, commenting that the puppy was Carrolls most glaring aesthetic mistake in Aliceneither seems to have noticed that the hedgehogs and flamingos are also not talking beasts. (FN47) Another reader of Tenniels illustrations, Isabelle Nieres, takes a similar line, remarking that the full-page illustration is perhaps placing too much emphasis on Alices encounter with the puppy. (FN48) But what Tenniels puppy illustration encapsulates, in my view, is the theme of the importance of relative size. Here is Alices horrifying moment of uncertainty about whether she is meeting a predator or a pet. As reader and Alice will discover, the puppy only wants to play.But Alice is abysmally frightened all the time at the thought it might be hungry, in which case it would be very likely to eat her up in spite of all her coaxing (54), and Tenniels illustration with the thistle in the spotlight towering over the tiny Alice, like many of his memorable illustrations, chiefly signifies her anxiety. Later, too, Tenniels choice of the lobster as the subject of a drawing is a visual reminder of the transformation of animals into meat it brings the viewer uncomfortably close to recognition of kinship with the devoured, so human is the lobster and so warily is his eye dogged on the viewers.The lobster is another illustration that Hodnett found an inexplicable presence in the text the song in the text provides insufficient excuse for an illustration, he remarks. (FN49) My analysis of Tenniels composite verbal/visual Alice in Wonderland is very different. peradventure going well beyond Carrolls conscious intentions, Tenniel offers a Wonderland that concurs with the e volutionist view of creation by showing animals and humans as a continuum within which the stronger or larger prey upon the smaller or weaker.The implicationone many readers of Darwin were most reluctant to acceptis that if animals are semihuman, humans may conversely be nothing but evolved animals. Alices extraordinary size changesin which Tenniel is so interestedtherefore play a significant role in this new world, for as I already pointed out, it is through her series of size changes that Alice finds herself continually being repositioned in the food chain.Wonderland is truly the place of reversals its theme of a world upside down is traditional, as Ronald Reichertz has reminded us in an illuminating study that positions Alice in Wonderland in relation to earlier childrens reading. (FN50) surface changes can represent the topsy-turvy, of course. But while Alice has some recognizably Jack-in-Giant-land experienceslike struggling to climb up the leg of a tableand some Tom Thumb exp erienceslike hiding behind a thistlewhat is so weird or Wonderlandish about her story is not her sudden yield spurts but that she transforms rapidly from the small to the large and vice versa. FN51) Alices body changes at times suggest being outsize and aggressivefor example, when she is trapped in the White Rabbits house and terrifies the little creatures outside, or when she is accused of being an egg-stealing ophidian or predator by the pigeon. But she is undersized and therefore compromising when she slips into the pool of tears or when she meets the puppy. (FN52) The size changes connect back to eat or be eaten where the dangers of large and small size, a theme especially horrifying to children, is a traditional one, found in tales of giants and ogres, Hop-o my Thumb or Mally Whuppie. FN53) But as we have seen, the Tenniel/Carroll Alice in Wonderland links forward to ideas of predator and prey, eat or be eaten, and the animal nature of humanity, all of late given new urgenc y by Darwin. A contemporary illustration worth pondering that deals with these important ideas (it appeared at almost exactly the time of the publication of Alice in Wonderland) is the cover of Hardwickes Science-Gossip A Monthly Medium of commutation & Gossip for Students and Lovers of Nature (January 1866).This cover represents (see fig. 20) the scientific technology that interested Carroll, as well as, more sentimentally, the small creatures and plants of woodland and seashore that are a part of the natural history background. These subjects, however, make a mere frame to the central illustration, both grisly and amusing, which is a depiction of the chain of predation, eat or be eaten, in action. One could hardly ask for a more succinct visual summary of this important element in the contemporary contexts of Alice.Recognition of this theme will, as well as accounting for lobster and puppy illustrations, also account for the otherwise somewhat puzzling centrality of Dinah and the Cheshire Cat in Carrolls text. Nina Auerbach quotes Florence Becker Lennons insight that the Cheshire Cat is Dinahs dream-self, and certainly one or the other is more or less ever-where in Wonderland. (FN54) I think the reason for this must be that this familiar household pet best emphasizes the paradoxical difference between being large, in which state the cat is a scrumptious little furry companion, and being small, in which state the cat might kill you and eat you.In the Darwinian world, size can be the key to survival. And yet, Carroll selected a smiling crocodile to stand for the new view of creation. The cruelty of the Darwinian world is, in his view, somehow inseparable from delight. To suggest a context for this unexpected but quintessentially nineteenth-century state of mind,(FN55) a comparison may be made here between Carrolls poetic vision of his particular predator and Henry de la Beches 1830 cartoon of life in A More Ancient Dorset or, Durior Antiquior (see fig. 1). D e la Beche was English despite his name, and was the first director of the British Geological Survey. According to Stephen Jay Gould, who includes it in his preface to The Book of Life, de la Beches snappy cartoon, simultaneously grim and humorous, was reproduced endlessly (in both legitimate and pirated editions) and is an important model, change state the canonical figure of ancient life at the inception of this genre. (FN56) In short, this is the first dinosaur picture.Victorian paintings of nature (showing a similar pleasure to Carrolls in his crocodile) do tend to center on hunting and predationsee The stag at Bayand de la Beches influential image, Gould explains, became a thoroughly conventional depiction of prehistory, first, in showing a pond unnaturally crowd with wildlife (rather like Carrolls pool of tears), and second, in depicting virtually every creature in it as either a feaster or a repast(FN57)something one may also feel about Carrolls characters.Particularly st riking is the gusto, the deliciously half-horrified enjoyment of bloody prehistory, in de la Beches cartoon, which in my view is very comparable to the enjoyment of the image of the devouring crocodile in Lewiss brilliant little parody. A slightly unpleasant gusto also animates Alice in Wonderland, a book that fairly crackles with energy although the energy has always been rather hard to account for.While on the official levels of his consciousness Carroll stood apart from the theological storms of the time,(FN58) is it possible that the news of evolution through natural selection was, on another level of his mind, good news to him as to many other Victorians, approach shot as a kind of mental liberation? Humanity might well have found crushing, at times, the requirements of moral responsibility and uniform self-improvement imposed by mid-Victorian ideals of Christian duty.Alice, for one, young as she is, has already thoroughly internalized many rules of conduct, and Alices creato r, equipped as he was with what Donald Rackin has called a rabidity for standards and order,(FN59) revels in the oversetting of order (as well as disowning this oversetting thoroughly when Alice awakens from her dream). The excitement of an amoral anti-society in Alice in Wonderland may be, therefore, in part the exhilaration of a Darwinist dream, of selfishness without restraint.As we all know, Alices route out of Wonderland is to grow out of it. In termination this essay a final suggestion may be made about Carroll and his self-depiction in Wonderland. If the book is full of expressions of anxiety about relative sizeand the dangers of largeness and smallnessthis may not merely be because a new theory of evolution by natural selection had enlivened this ancient theme. Possibly Carroll had adapted this theory as a private way of symbolizing for himself the anxieties and dangers of his relationship withAlice and the other Liddell children. In Morton N. Cohens life-time Lewis Carr oll, a table numbers the occurrences of guilty self-reproach and resolves to amend in Carrolls diaries and shows how these peaked at the time of his deepest involvement with the Liddell family. (FN60) Is it possible that Carroll, far from ugly a repressed interest in little girls, consciously adjudge and wrestled in private prayer with his own impossible desires?It seems to become ever more difficult, rather than easier, to read this aspect of Carrolls life. In a modern Times Literary Supplement (February 8, 2002), Karoline Leach argues that Carrolls friendships with children were emphasized in his nephew Stuart Collingwoods career to distract attention from the potentially more scandalous fact of the older Carrolls friendships with mature women.A letter in response by Jenny Woolf, on February 15, points out that Carrolls sisters continued to recognize Carrolls women friends, so obviously perceived these friendships as chaste, but reminds us of the possibility that Dodgson may h ave cultivated girl children as friends because of their innocence, because they were sexually safe to him, rather than because they were dangerously enticing.A response to this position, of course, would be that the assiduity with which Carroll cultivated friendships with small girls seems out of proportion to such a purpose. Whatever the truth of these matters, it appears to me that Carroll, distressed by the emotional battles documented in his diary, might well have developd a set of imaginative scenarios in which a little girls growing up or down is rechargeable according to her own desire this offers one kind of explanation of some of the more mysterious events of Wonderland.The dangerous but exhilarating aspects of Carrolls relationship with his little friends seems to fit neatly into a tooth and claw model of society, too, for each troupe to such a friendship, although acting in innocence and affection, has a kind of reserve capacity to destroy, to switch from pet to predat or. Carroll might even have dramatized himself as a beast in a Darwinian world in relation to these little girls who are never the right size for him.At times he is only the peta romping, anxious-to-please, but oversize puppy. But there are other times when he might fear becoming the predator, a crocodile whose welcoming smile masks the potential to devour. And conversely, of course, Carrolls erotic love little friends had the monstrous capacity to destroy him, morally and socially, if he should ever overstep the boundaries of decency and trust.Tenniel, presumably unaware of any secret underside to Carrolls life, was at any rate debarred by Victorian regard for children as viewers from depicting the vehement underside of Alice. But by referring the reader outward to current controversies and current interests in the natural sciences, he has succeeded wonderfully in rendering in art both Carrolls, and his own, grasp of the importance of a new worldview, and of the explosive anxi ety and exhilaration to which it gave birth. ADDED MATERIAL ROSE LOVELL-SMITH

Alexander Hamilton: Memoirs and Contributions

If one moldiness remember Alexander Hamilton, it must be for his high-mindeds on adult males ingrained rights and parity. It is not yet a question of areaalism still that of universalism. One could misinterpret his grotesque ideas on commonwealth yet what truly is the essence of his views could be k instantly from his early writings. His conviction as a youth against colonialism and advocacy on democratic principles were known to him in his speeches. His beginning political writing was entitle the Vindication which he wrote when he was below eighteen years of age, was overflowing of assertions against the parliament for instance he expressNo reason cornerstone be advanced why one man should exercise both power or pre-eminence over his fellow creatures more than another, unless they have voluntarily vested him with it. (Cited in Morse, 1890) Also, in his arguments against the Tory opponents he uttered in reference to his benignant rights advocacies The fundamental source of your errors, sophisms and false reasoning is a total ignorance of the natural rights of mankind. (Ibid) Hamilton argued that blacks natural faculties were as good as those of free whites.In lieu of his obtain for equivalence and argument against slavery, Hamilton attacked his political opponents as demanding freedom for themselves and refusing to allow it to blacks. He was also a member of the committee of the society banning the export of slaves from spic-and-span York in the form of a point through the red-hot York Legislature. Who really is this man whose face graces the ten US dollar bill and a lot of monuments and historical museums? Alexander Hamilton was born on January 11, 1755 in Charlestown, Nevis and died on July 12, 1804.His contributions to the society are mainly political yet far-ranging. then every aspect of our political life could have traces of or are related with Hamiltons lessons. For example, his Fed date of referencelist papers have been significant for the interpretations of United States Constitution. The first policies and policy directions during the formative years of the regimen were also highly cultivated by Hamilton being the Secretary of Treasury under George Washingtons administration. His ideal government is one where there is a upstanding central government.In take in with his support to Federalism he said A government ought to contain in itself every power requisite to the full accomplishment of the objects committed to its tutelagefree from every other control but a fancy to the public good and to the sense of the people. (Cited in Magstadt, 2006) In his view, an expeditious democracy is necessary to guard against any excess of checks and balances that might impede or impair the governments ability to act energetically when mountain dictate.Hence, the US Constitution created a strong executive capable of conducting the nations foreign affairs, vetoing legislations and appointments of judges. He admired the British system in terms of financial and trade networks and opposed what he viewed as the excesses of french revolution. His contribution to the political party formation is also evident in the founding of his Federalist Party. This is the first American political party which was opposed by James Madison and Thomas Jeffersons Democratic-Republican Party.His service as assemblyman of stark naked York County in the New York State Legislature started in 1787. His participation in the Constitutional Convention was limited because of another faction opposing his strong government concept. He made an interesting speech during that time which said that the ideal form of government had represented all the interest groups, but maintained a hereditary monarch to decide policy. To him, the country should assume this form of government and proposed to have a prexy and elected Senators for life, with guess of removal for corruption or abuse.He also discussed abolition of autonomous secern governments. He has remained unwavering to the constitution despite some of his reservations against it and worked very intemperate for its national ratification. Hamiltons concern for the country extends up to his economic agenda. His combat-ready role in the development of US prudence is revealed through his efforts as Secretary of the Treasury. His five reports which boosted Financial Revolution in the US economy are as follows (1. ) First Report on the Public point of reference Communicated to the House of Representatives, January 14, 1790 (2.) Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports Communicated to the House of Representatives, April 23, 1790 (3. ) support Report on Public Credit Report on a National Bank Communicated to the House of Representatives, celestial latitude 14, 1790 (4. ) Report on the boldness of a Mint Communicated to the House of Representatives, January 28, 1791 and (5. ) Report on Manufactures Communicated to the House of Representatives, December 5, 1791. Hamilton helped create the first National Bank, the United States Mint, also what is known now as the United States Coast Guard and the sophisticated system of tariffs and present moment duties.The Hamiltonian program turned the chaotic financial system of the confederation era into a modern mechanism providing financial stability to the new government giving the investors confidence. Alexander Hamilton is considered the patron-saint of the American School of economic philosophy as he dominated economic policy after(prenominal) 1861. Hamilton opposed the British ideas of free trade which he believed skewed benefits to colonial/imperial powers, in favor of U. S. protectionism which he believed would help develop the fledgling nations emerging economy. In 1801, Hamilton founded the New-York Evening Post.We now know him therefore as a man with many occupational groups a writer, politician, economist, was formerly an Army officer, lawyer, Founding Father, leading statesman, run and political theorist. How did all these professions and colorful life ended? Before that, it must be noted that Alexander Hamilton had on December 14, 1780, married Elizabeth Schuyler, missy of General Philip Schuyler. Although his married life was marred with a lot of controversies of infidelity, Elizabeth remained loyal to him and in the preservation of his dignified political career.His death was nearing soon after the gubernatorial election in New Yorkin which Morgan Lewis, greatly aided by Hamilton, and defeated Aaron Burr. His confrontations with Burr and attacks on his defeat had caused an arrangement for a duel on July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the Hudson River. Vice President Aaron Burr shot Hamilton, the latter died. Such was the end of a handsome life for Alexander Hamilton. This paper briefly shared the life and career of Alexander Hamilton. It is not without doubt that the environment in which he had chosen to exist has equally presumption him fame an d struggles.As a description of his reputation, he is thusly worthy of admiration along with his limitations and weaknesses. No one could object to his influence over our past and current political system. Alexander Hamilton is one personality, who has given us exemplary conceptualizations on democracy, government institutions, economic trade and finance, and equality and human rights. The memoirs of Alexander Hamilton ergo are dominated by reflections on his socio-political and economic contributions.Works Cited Magstadt, Thomas. Understanding Politics, Ideas, Institutions and Issues, 7th Edition. Wadsworth California, 2006 Morse, Anderson. Alexander Hamilton. Political Science every quarter Vol. 5 No. 1. (March, 1890) 1-23. Robert E. Wright. One Nation Under Debt Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe. New York McGraw-Hill, 2008. Samuel Eliot Morison and Henry Steele Commager. Growth of the American Republic. New YorkOxford University Press, 1969. www. wikipedia. co m .

Is the term ‘Just War’ now outdated? Essay

Debates ab erupt what we now strain respectable war go back as far as the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Cicero. In Christian understanding, the system was developed by St Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan in 374, and his student Augustine. Drawing on Roman ideas and the Old Testament, they marked out that only a legitimate governmental authority has the right to offer fight it must be aimed at restoring peace and ideally should be a last resort.The political situation was such that war was constant, and at that place was a need for a set of normals in order for the province to support the Church. Pacifism was decl atomic number 18d for the clergy and monks only, and it became permissible to wage war on certain(prenominal) grounds, for illustration if un honourablely attacked. just war for revenge and to take reparations was also allowed, which questions whether it is at all doable to ever fulfill the criteria of either jus ad bellum (the six requirements that must be sati sfied by the heads of state) or jus in bello (justice in the withdraw of battle).Later, Thomas Aquinas connected and nonionized the theory in the Summa Theologicae he discussed the justifications for going to war. The legitimate authority principle prevented civil uprisings and feudal wars. Originally, the King was anointed and seen as responsible before divinity for his military actions thus only the King had the right to wage war on Gods enemies.However throughout history this has been challenged for instance, the communistic revolution barbaricly leavened new authority over the previously existing autocratic ruler. Furthermore, in a democratic country, where the prime minister of religion has been elected, the c erstpt of the governmental leader having some sort of a radio link with God is inappropriate. The atrocities of the First piece War, although decl ard by legitimate authorities, are clearly non what the Just War Theory ever intended. thusly it seems reasonable to suggest that the theory is outdated, for technological advancements magnified the potential violent impact of war.However, supporters of the United Nations Security Council would say that the Just War theory evolves over while and adapts to pressing needs for instance after the Second World War much authority was give to the UN in order to derogate countries waging war in order to satisfy their deliver demands and pursue their own aims and reactions. Approaching the end of the war at the Yalta Conference (1945) it was decided to picture a third party could regulate the military affairs of the superpowers. However the UN could not prevent further military conflicts between the 1980s and 90s the eastern superpower weakened and the USA, as the remaining paymaster of the UN, gained a lot of support. For instance the carnage committed by Israel, Americas ally, has been largely overlooked, whereas the pre-emptive make on Iraq was approved. Thus the concept of Just War remains imp racticable.The foreshorten of terrorism has also proved to be a challenge for the Just War theory. Terrorists are essentially illegitimate authorities trying to pick out about political change through violent means their conduct is often extreme, including the use of shakhids in Chechnya (female suicide bombers, often very young). In the light of 09/11 it is fair to say that when such brutal and inhuman methods are being used, a proportionate reception by definition will not be a just one either. This puts certain states in a fractious position in terms of spare-time activity the Just War principles. The organization identified as responsible, Al-Qaida, are not representative of any one country. The members are hard to track and the US cannot cope with its strategy, despite the military and nuclear powers at its disposal.It is particularly difficult to satisfy the demands of jus in bello when the threat of Nuclear warfare is apparent once more since the Cold War. Back then th e American Roman Catholic bishops condemned the use of nuclear weapons because they are indiscriminate and disproportionate. But even if it is possible to maintain diplomacy between countries and avoid NBC (nuclear, biological and chemical weaponry) it is unaccepted to control non-governmental sources and rogue states that may obtain NBC and use it to threaten and blackmail. The just war theory cannot provide a clear cut response to the problem of proportionality with regards to nuclear weaponry.The above problems are characteristic of our time the term Just War seems out of keeping with the scale and spirit of modern warfare. Resources are growing scarce, world economy is unstable, and political differences bm nations to extreme military measures no cause is fully just and no major state can be innocent. However, there are other issues that are not discussed as often in terms of just war such as the division between the easy and the poor countries, and whether the latter woul d be justified in waging war to establish a fairer system than the one existing right now. Overall, the Just War theory can be modified and updated it should not be ignore because there is a desperate need for peace and justice in the world today.